Contents
Two - FROM WITHIN THE ATOM
Light was the first Divinity worshipped by men.
To it they owed the brilliant spectacle of Nature.
It seems an emanation from the Creator of all things,
making known to our senses the Universe
which darkness hides from our eyes,
and, as it were, giving it existence.
Albert PikeAn atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons in "orbit" around it. There are usually from one to six orbits according to the size of the atom, and each orbit may contain from one to a certain maximum number of electrons. The maximum number of electrons allowed in each orbit is 2 for the first (innermost) orbit, 8 for the second, 8 for the third, 18 for the fourth, 18 for the fifth, and 32 for the sixth.
These orbits are not like planetary orbits because the electrons repel one another, alter their orientations, change direction, accelerate, and decelerate in the blink of an eye. It is not too difficult to see why only two electrons may exist in the first (innermost) orbit. When very close to the nucleus, the two would repel one another so that only two of them could be there. The next eight would easily take on the configuration of a modified cube. The eight in the third orbit would take the form of two pyramids, base to base, with slightly altered tops. However, things get more complicated at the fourth orbit. And all these electrons are always in motion that is seldom regular in any usual sense of the word. In fact, it is likely that they swap orbits every so often. Their locations as explained above are only average locations.
The outermost orbit of any atom can be any one of the six possible because a small atom needs only one orbit while the larger atoms require more. It is the outermost orbit which has the "valence" electrons which are the cause of chemical reactions. The outer orbit is not full except for the atoms of a few elements.
The electrons residing in the outermost orbit are confined almost as much as those in the inner orbits (bear in mind that an electron's usual orbit is not really what we think of as an orbit, but a place which may or may not be rotating about the nucleus in which an electron can uncomfortably reside). Each electron is moving around in a small space, held there by its attraction to the nucleus and pushed by other electrons so that to maintain its own area, it must push back. When energy is added to it, there is no room for it to move at its usual level, so it climbs quickly to a higher level just as if it were a volley ball bouncing out of a large funnel.
Energy is added to it, furnished by a photon generated by an electron from another atom. This excitation causes the excited electron to move to a higher orbit immediately. It is like the confined space of the usual orbit would not contain the vibration added by the photon.
Once the excited electron has reached a higher energy state (higher orbit) and the incoming photon has ceased to be, the electron wants to relax a bit (even though electrons never relax any more than a hummingbird in alien territory). So it falls back into its preferred orbit. As it falls, it is limited by its immediate environment so that it bounces from one side of its allowed space to the other. This creates a vibration unique to an electron in this particular element when returning from its sojourn outward, and a new photon is born.
When an electron falls from a higher orbit, it bounces from side to side, producing a package of light waves which is called a photon. Each light half-wave in the photon is transmitted outward by the nether. The electron that generates the half-wave is changing the flow pattern within the nether. It is accelerating the nether by moving in a new direction and generating a new direction for its inward nether flow.
Any kind of electromagnetic half-wave is generated due to a nether flow changing direction. In a simple straight antenna for AM radio the electrons in the antenna move alternately up and down. Their nether flow cycles repeatedly between clockwise and counterclockwise. The half-waves they send outward move through the nether that is incoming toward them from all points of the compass, and two adjacent half-waves cause the nether at any particular point of the compass to look a bit like a whip being cracked (a sine wave). Each half-wave moves out in cylindrical form around the antenna, and each cylinder that moves outward carries the energy of the half-wave.
Bear in mind that it is the acceleration of the electron and the subsequent acceleration of the nether that makes the half-wave effective - not the velocity of the nether. Once the half-wave of acceleration moves a millimeter from the electron producing it, the inward nether velocity is almost too low to notice. But the acceleration moves outward at the speed of light, because it is light. And this acceleration is equal to "c/t", in which "c" is the velocity of light and "t" is one second of time.
A light wave is similar to a radio wave but has a much higher frequency and a much shorter wavelength. A series of light waves make a photon. When an electron falls from a higher to a lower orbit, it vibrates (bounces) as if it were in a short antenna.
In the case of the radio wave, many electrons are involved in its propagation. The outgoing half-wave can have much more energy than what would be created by a single electron vibrating at the same frequency. A single photon, however, is created by a single electron.
An electron has an "angular momentum" of half of something that is called the Planck unit of action. The Planck unit of action, which we can call "h" here (it is usually an "h" with bar through it), is actually Planck's constant divided by "2pi". Although the Planck unit of action is considered to be a unit of angular momentum, it is not that. According to current-day physics, Planck's constant is composed of the units "mvd" (mass, velocity, and distance). True linear momentum is simply "mv", and true angular momentum is simply "mr2w" where "m" is mass, "r" is the a radius of gyration, and w is angular velocity. The division by "2pi" does not change the basic units of Planck's constant, and "h" is not momentum.
hf = m a d
h = mad/f
f = n/t where "n" is number of events.
v = d/t
a = d/t2
h = mad/f = m(d/t2)d/(n/t) = m(d/t)2(t/n) = m(d2/t)n
When "n" is one as is the case for a single cycle,
h = m(d2/t).
"h" has the same units as "h".
So h = h/(2pi) is only something that is being used as a substitute for angular momentum.
In actuality, h is neither momentum nor energy, but something in between.
If h were m(d/t), it would be momentum.
If h were m(d/t)2, it would be energy.
But h is in between. It needs "n/t" (which is frequency) for us to have a quantum of light energy.
Perhaps things would make more sense if h had been considered the energy in one wave. The quantity (1/t) would be part of it and h would not be a weird thing between momentum and energy. Instead, it would be energy - and "n", the number of waves multiplied by h, would have been the total energy in a wave packet.
In the case of the electron, "h/2" is its "almost momentum." This is almost the same "momentum" as half of a wave passage of light. An electromagnetic wave is a cycle moving outward. If we speak of a wave in water, half of its cycle is the wave motion upward, and the other half is the wave motion downward. When the electron moves one way, it generates half of a wave at right angles to its direction of movement. When it moves back the way it came, it generates the other half of the wave. The wave energy is produced by the difference in pressure between the interior of the electron's vortex and the nether outside it.
During one passage of an electron from a higher "orbit" to a lower one, the electron vibrates to produce many half-waves, two of which make a cycle with the "momentum" that is Planck's constant. The number of full waves in such a "package" constitute a photon whose energy is equal to Planck's constant multiplied by the number of waves that would pass in one second.
So hf = energy, when f = frequency. But remember that frequency is based upon events divided by one second, so the actual energy in a real packet, which is not produced in precisely one second, is not the same.f = n/t where "t" is time and "n" is number of events. The "n" is an integer which is without dimension. So when using dimensional analysis, hf = mvd/t. d/t = v which is velocity. This means that hf = m(v)(v) which is definitely energy.
During each set of vibrations of the electron, a "package" of waves is sent outward which has the total energy of Planck's constant times the number of waves in the packet. This is actually nature's "wave packet" even though a photon is most often called "h" times "f", the frequency, which is the the energy in one second, and is an arbitrary and false representation of the actual energy in a wave packet.
The reason that we use "hf" as an arbitrary energy of a wave packet is to be able to compare the energies in waves of different frequencies. The problem is that many scientists use the term "photon" in two ways: (1) for a real package of waves which almost never lasts for precisely one second, and (2) for the number of waves that pass in one second. This double use causes confusion and is important. It also causes non-thinking "scientists" and physics instructors to visualize a photon as a particle rather than a series of waves.
The actual basic unit is not the wave, but the half-wave. There are two half-waves in each wave. Therefore, each wave is a double acceleration.
For a wave in the nether to have an effect, it must have the quality of acceleration, since nether at any constant velocity will have no effect. A wave that is made of nether is a wave of acceleration. Frequency actually is a measure of the number of double accelerations in each second. The quantum of "momentum" known as Planck's constant, when multiplied by frequency, the number of double-accelerations per second, really means that the velocity in the momentum formula, mv, is constantly changing from zero to its maximum, which means that momentum is constantly changing from zero to the value of "h(1/t)/c", at a rate equal to the frequency times two. And it is the tangential vector of the waving inward flow of the nether that has this changing momentum. So each half-wave has the energy found in one tangential acceleration of the nether - an acceleration from the nether velocity in one tangential direction at the circumference of an electron center to the nether velocity in the opposite direction. But this is an oversimplified explanation.
Once again, light waves come in packets of several at a time which are called photons. But a photon's energy is usually defined as "hf", Planck's constant times the frequency of the light wave. This means the light wave packet of energy is a multiple of Planck's constant. It is the frequency of the wave multiplied by Planck's constant. But as mentioned before, frequency is accelerations of the nether per second, and nature does not make her wave packets conform to one second in duration. So what many physicists often call a photon may have more or less total energy than the frequency multiplied by Planck's constant. Of course when speaking of several wave packets which we wish to compare for a given length of time each, the "hf" definition of a photon is useful even though somewhat misleading. In other words, a natural photon has never, is not now, and never will be a particle or a package of one-second energy.
When an expanding "ring" of nether carrying the half-wave approaches something that can accept it, it gives up its energy. Any object which can accept this energy accepts it only in its particular "discreet" frequency. So the idea of a photon with an energy of "hf" is useful in this regard also. Frequency is simply a count of the number of times one cycle of the wave occurs within a certain length of time (usually one second).
Each cycle is a double acceleration of the nether. Each cycle of a wave has "momentum" that is exactly "h(1/t)/c" where "h" is Planck's constant, the "t" in "1/t" is time ("1/t" is a frequency of one - the passage of a single wave), and "c" is the speed of light.
This "momentum" actually is "force" (mass multiplied by acceleration) as it begins at the electron center. It changes to energy when the force becomes the outward moving ring that is a light half-wave. The distance that the ring's mass moves changes "ma" (force) to "mad" (energy). This energy does not change with the distance from its radiating point. It is carried intact as the ripple moves outward. This is one reason why physicists think of a photon as being particulate in some ways.
The direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to the plane of the "ripple" that is radiating outward. For instance, waves on a pond move up and down like the electrons in a vertical radio antenna. We say that they are polarized vertically. Waves from an simple AM radio antenna are polarized vertically, parallel to the vertical antenna. This is the direction of electron movement, which is perpendicular to the "flux field" around the antenna. But its waves (rings moving outward like ripples on a pond) are moving out parallel to a plane perpendicular to the antenna.
Most light sources generate an abundance of waves, polarized in many multitudes of different directions. For instance, a light bulb sends out many light waves with many directions of polarization. When many light waves are sent out with many directions of polarization, distance from the light source is very important in regard to the energy received. This is because the various light waves must scatter over a wider area as the distance increases, and a light collector will be collecting less waves of light as the distance from the source increases.
A single light wave does not lose its momentum or its energy as it travels away from the source unless it finds something that can absorb it. Each time it finds such a thing, it delivers energy equal to Planck's constant divided by time. When it delivers this energy, it is part of a packet of cycles so that the number of cycles per time in the packet (nether accelerations) times the unit that is Planck's constant is the energy of the packet.
Technically, the momentum of the wave is lost because it is a function of velocity which lessens as the ripples that are the two components of the wave move outward. But the energy is still there in the form of momentum, and will be regained when the lightwave transfers it momentum to a receiving electron.
A light wave does not lose momentum or energy with distance because the nether is frictionless and momentum is conserved. The wave moves outward due to the nether constantly changing directions in what might be termed reduced pressure from the nether moving inward. Each vorticle with a "static charge" that moves in a vibratory fashion creates an electromagnetic wave, the tangential acceleration of the spiral that forms. The inward radial acceleration of this spiral is what we might call gravity at the vorticle level (very different from what we see as gravity on a larger level). Both electromagnetic waves and gravity are caused by acceleration, the change in velocity of the nether. A simple velocity in the nether will cause no change.
The inward acceleration (micro-gravity) of the nether remains essentially the same over time at any given distance from a vorticle, and changes according to the distance from the source because it is caused by the funnel effect of matter in three-dimensional space (see Book Two of this series). The tangential acceleration, that is the light wave, is always equal to "2c/ts" (twice the speed of light) divided by the time an electron takes to change direction 180 degrees. It is twice the number of times that this tangential acceleration changes direction that we call one cycle of the frequency, " f ". And f = n/t where "n" is an integer.
The usual inward "velocity" of the nether at any radius of passage of the light wave is proportional to "1/r" where "r" is its radius from the source. The same is true of the tangential velocity. The passage of a half-wave of light changes this. The inward velocity remains essentially the same, but the tangential velocity is reversed.
An acceleration can be much greater than the velocity it ultimately produces because it can be present for only a short time to produce the acceleration. Thus, an acceleration equal to "2c/ts" can produce a velocity that is considerably less than "c" by producing it quickly. In the case of the light half-wave, the acceleration "2c/ts" is produced by a pressure change in the nether which moves at the speed of light because it is the tangential and radial reactive speed of nether itself.
The total reactive speed of the nether is (21/2)c, but this resultant has two vectors - the inward radial and the tangential. The radial velocity does not change when the electron changes direction, so there is no great amount of acceleration inwardly. However, the tangential velocity vector changes 180 degrees, with an acceleration of "2c/t" (from "c" in one direction to "c" in the opposite direction within a short time).
The nether mass of the ring of tangential acceleration is increased with the length of its circumference, but the distance the mass moves due to the force applied becomes less. So the "md" portion of the "mad" energy remains constant even though "m" and "d" do not. The acceleration also remains constant. This is why the wave energy is not lost with distance.
Looking at the radio antenna again, we see that the electrons are alternately moving up and down the antenna. This causes the flux field to alternately change direction for the duration of the broadcast. At any particular distance from the antenna, this is the reversing of direction of the tangential velocity vector of the nether. And this reversing of direction of the tangential velocity vector is actually the continuous tangential acceleration of the nether which requires constant energy as an input.
A larger mass can move a short distance and cause a smaller mass to move a greater distance. When I was a boy, I watched a classmate attempt to pull a "joke" on a woman who was driving along a narrow road. The classmate sat on his bicycle pointed away from the woman's car as it came along. The woman slowed to a crawl and inched up to the bicycle with boy on it. When contact between the slowly moving car and stationary bicycle occurred, the boy and his bicycle were catapulted quickly a distance of over fifteen feet. The mass of the car was much greater than the mass of the boy and his bicycle.
As a light half-wave moves outward, the opposite occurs. The mass increases and the distance it moves decreases until the half-wave is more of a transverse pressure wave than something that is moving.
It is the vacuum at the center of the vorticle that furnishes the energy for the normal nether acceleration. This energy takes a spiral form, partly acting as gravity for vorticles, with slightly different geometry than that of gravity for masses of vorticles. This is similar to the way that the drain in the bathtub furnishes the energy for the whirlpool when the tub drains.
An amplitude modulation (AM) radio antenna has many electrons and an outside energy source. Its energy is quite different from that of a single electron. In an AM radio antenna, it is the electrical force from a generator or battery that produces the alternate changes of direction of the many electrons. This produces the energy for the changes in direction of the tangential velocities that are the crux of the radio wave. The total wave energy actually comes from both the electron centers and the electricity from the battery or generator.
She was now only ten inches high, and her face brightened up
at the thought that she was now the right size for going through
that little door into that lovely garden.
Lewis Carroll
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